Daniel Kies Department of English College of DuPage
Modern English Grammar English 2126		Contact Form

Introduction:
The Grammatical Foundations of Style

Earlier, we saw that each constituent serves a multiplicity of roles in every human language. The noun phrase, remember, has multiple roles. We have seen noun phrases work as subjects, objects, adverbials, and complements of both the clause and the prepositional phrase.

(31) The council voted to defeat the amendment. [noun phrase as subject] (32) Citizens then petitioned their representatives. [noun phrase as object] (33) The citizens are the taxpayers after all. [noun phrase as complement of the clause] (34) The council capitulated to the wishes of the voters. [noun phrase as complement of preposition] (35) The next day, the council reversed itself. [noun phrase as adverbial] However, it is not just elements at the word or phrase rank that must serve many functions in different contexts. So too each clause serves many different functions simultaneously. Grammar identifies four major, overarching functions in language — called the 'metafunctions.' METAFUNCTION Each metafunction is realized — is the result of — different clause systems that work continuously and simultaneously, creating four distinct types of meaning. The four metafunctions are called experiential, interpersonal, textual, and logical. See, for example, the table below.		Current work:   Days remaining this term: Notes: Add Note |  Log in? | Privacy | Change Name & Email Mail this page to a friend
		Related links: The HyperTextBooks' Text Utilities The Concordancer Find and Replace Text From the English 1101 HyperTextBook Nominalization & Passive Voice Sentence Variety & Modification Coherence From the English 1102 HyperTextBook Suasive Diction Grammatical Manipulation of the Reader

Each CLAUSE is part of	many CLAUSE SYSTEMS	that realize TYPES OF MEANING	creating TYPES OF GRAMMATICAL INFORMATION
each Clause	Transitivity	Experiential	Actor, Process, Goal, (etc)
	Mood	Interpersonal	Sentence types Subject, Verb, Object, (etc.) Modality
	Theme	Textual	Theme/Rheme Given/New
	Taxis	Logical	Coordination Subordination

We have outlined many of the major concepts in the Mood and Taxis systems in the previous section already, first, when we studied clause and sentence types, second, when we examined the grammatical functions of subject, verb, object, complement, and adverbial, and, finally, when we outlined some of the differences between para- and hypotaxis — coordination and subordination.

Furthermore, we have even skimmed some of the processes of Transitivity and Theme systems. In our earlier review of the verb phrase, for instance, we discussed the differences between major subcategories of verbs — transitive and intransitive being two.

The transitivity system helps us recognize and encode our experiences of the world. In the world we understand that some things function as 'actors,' making things happen. We also understand that actors are usually humans. We understand that actors will do different kinds acts on different goals. Those acts — or 'processes' — could be material (such as "get a book") or mental (such as "consider the possibilities"). Likewise, the goals could vary from intangible abstractions (such as the possibilities) to concrete realities (such as the book). It is the function of the transitivity system to make these distinctions of meaning (Halliday 1967 and 1985).

Consider the sentences below, in which we deliberately alter the Mood and Transitivity systems of a clause to illustrate the differences in meaning created by each clause system. Given the Transitivity system, we always recognize the door as the Goal of the Process, no matter what the Mood system function of the noun phrase might be — an object as in (1) or a subject as in (2). Because of the Transitivity system, we always recognize the key as an Instrument, no matter what the Mood system function of the noun phrase might be — part of an adverbial as in (1) or a subject as in (3).

(1) A basic example showing a typical pairing of Mood system grammatical information with Transitivity system grammatical information
SYSTEM	EXAMPLE
	Bob	opened	the door	with a key.
Mood	Subject	Verb	Object	Adverbial
Transitivity	Actor	Process	Goal	Instrument

(2) One example to illustrate the Mood system working independently of the Transitivity system
SYSTEM	EXAMPLE
	The door	was opened	with a key.
Mood	Subject	Verb	Adverbial
Transitivity	Goal	Process	Instrument

(3) Another example to illustrate the Mood system working independently of the Transitivity system
SYSTEM	EXAMPLE
	The key	opened	the door.
Mood	Subject	Verb	Object
Transitivity	Instrument	Process	Goal

Similarly, we have already touched upon the Theme system when we discussed 'voice' in the verb phrase section above. The different voices of the verb phrase, remember, allow speakers to choose different points of view by placing one constituent or another in clause-initial position. The active voice verb phrase of (4) places the word Liz in clause-initial position, while the passive voice verb phrase of (5) allows us to place the word Emily in clause-initial position:

(4) An example of active voice verb phrase employing Liz as theme
SYSTEM	EXAMPLE
	Liz	encourages	Emily.
Mood	Subject	Verb	Object
Theme	Theme	Rheme

(5) An example of a passive voice verb phrase employing Emily as theme
SYSTEM	EXAMPLE
	Emily	was encouraged	by Liz.
Mood	Subject	Verb	Adverbial
Theme	Theme	Rheme

Clause-initial position is significant in language because it helps to define the "point of view" the speaker/writer takes in looking at the world (Fries 1983). In (4), we are looking at the world from Liz's point of view, while (5) presents things from Emily's. Clause-initial position is where we find the theme of the clause.

Theme systems also indicate which part of the clause is "old" information, so to speak, and which part of the clause is "new" information for the audience. The "old" information is realized by the 'Given' constituent of the clause and the "new" information realizes the 'New' constituent of the clause. So to use the examples above again, we see that Liz realizes the Given constituent in the first example, but Emily realizes that constituent in the second example.

Now we are ready to see how thematic systems encode information so that each sentence is slightly different in its use. In a real context, speakers would use these two different arrangements of thematic constituents for different purposes: the first example is most appropriate in a context in which the speaker has been discussing Liz and her helpfulness, while the second example would work best in a situation in which the speaker has been discussing Emily and what happened to her. Look at the examples in the contexts below.

Liz is a wonderful sister. She is protective and kind toward her younger sister, Emily. But she does even more. Liz encourages Emily.

How Theme encodes Information
SYSTEM	EXAMPLE
	Liz	encourages	Emily.
Mood	Subject	Verb	Object
Theme	Theme	Rheme
	Given	New

Emily, being the youngest, is also the most timid. She would rarely try anything that was different or new. She has matured quite a bit, though, thanks to her sister. Emily was encouraged by Liz.

How Theme encodes Information
SYSTEM	EXAMPLE
	Emily	was encouraged	by Liz.
Mood	Subject	Verb	Adverbial
Theme	Theme	Rheme
	Given	New

Theme systems, like all the systems, are very complex in themselves, with wonderfully fine distinctions to help us highlight the important parts of our message (van Dijk 1977 and Dillon 1981). In its most basic form, the theme system divides the clause into two functional constituents, a theme (or what the clause is about) and a rheme (or what is said about it).

When a clause begins with a constituent we expect (such as a subject in an indicative clause or a base form of a verb in an imperative clause), we then say that clause has an 'unmarked' theme. The themes of (4), (5), and (6) are all examples of unmarked themes.

(6) An example of a clause with an unmarked theme
SYSTEM	EXAMPLE
	I	haven't seen	John Smith	in ages.
Mood	Subject	Verb	Object	Adverbial
Theme	Theme	Rheme

However, should the clause begin with an unexpected constituent, we then say that the clause has a 'marked' theme, as in (7) (Kies 1986).

(7) An example of a clause with a marked theme
SYSTEM	EXAMPLE
	John Smith	I	haven't seen	in ages.
Mood	Object	Subject	Verb	Adverbial
Theme	Theme	Rheme

To get a real sense of what Theme systems contribute to meaning, we need to examine a longer piece of text. The following passage is from The Autobiography of Bertrand Russell: 1872-1914 (pp. 3-4). [I have added letters to the beginning of each sentence to aid our discussion.]

(a) Three passions, simple but overwhelmingly strong, have governed my life: the longing for love, the search for knowledge, and unbearable pity for the suffering of mankind. (b) These passions, like great winds, have blown me hither and thither, in a wayward course over a deep ocean of anguish, reaching to the very verge of despair.

(c) I have sought love, first, because it brings ecstasy — ecstasy so great that I would often have sacrificed all the rest of life for a few hours of this joy. (d) I have sought it, next, because it relieves loneliness — that terrible loneliness in which one shivering consciousness looks over the rim of the world into the cold unfathomable lifeless abyss. (e) I have sought it, finally, because in the union of love I have seen, in a mystic miniature, the prefiguring vision of the heaven that saints and poets have imagined. (f) This is what I sought, and though it might seem too good for human life, this is what — at last — I have found.

(g) With equal passion I have sought knowledge. (h) I have wished to understand the hearts of men. (i) I have wished to know why the stars shine .... (j) A little of this, but not much, I have achieved.

(k) Love and knowledge, so far as they were possible, led upward toward the heavens. (l) But always pity brought me back to earth. (m) Echoes of cries of pain reverberate in my heart. (n) Children in famine, victims tortured by oppressors, helpless old people a hated burden to their sons, and the whole world of loneliness, poverty, and pain make a mockery of what human life should be. (o) I long to alleviate the evil, but I cannot, and I too suffer.

(p) This has been my life. (q) I have found it worth living, and would gladly live it again if the chance were offered me.

In the first three paragraphs, notice how Russell directs our attention through his consistent use of theme in each paragraph, usually either Three/These passions or I. That technique allows us to attend especially carefully to the rheme in each sentence, where his new information is (Eiler 1986).

In the fourth paragraph, notice the dramatic shift in Russell's use of thematic structure. Gone are the sentences with I as their themes. Here instead Russell wants us to focus on a different set of ideas, ideas that are much more important than he himself. So he puts those ideas in thematic position at the beginning of sentence (l), (m), and especially (n). By shifting theme in those sentences, Russell can direct our attention to the ideas that he most wants to express, namely that some issues (like human suffering) transcend the needs of the individual.

As we can see from these few examples, Theme systems can create a "texture" in the fabric of conversation or written language; they guide our point of view as we perceive and interpret the flow of information in the discourse. Theme systems help us follow the "thread of discourse" and in so doing provide cohesion within language (Halliday and Hasan 1976).

GRAMMAR AROUND AND BEYOND THE CLAUSE

So far, everything we have said about grammar has applied to structures the size of the sentence or smaller. But many grammatical processes extend well beyond the sentence or clause rank. The processes of cohesion and coherence are examples.

To use the language effectively, we must ensure that our language "holds together" into a coherent, and thereby intelligible, whole. Coherence itself is product of many different factors, which combine to make every paragraph, every sentence, and every phrase contribute to the meaning of the whole piece. Coherence in writing is much more difficult to sustain than coherent speech simply because writers have no nonverbal clues to inform them if their message is clear or not. Therefore, writers must make their patterns of coherence much more explicit and much more carefully planned. Coherence itself is the product of several factors:

Repetition. In sentence B (the second of any two sentences), repeat a word from sentence A. Notice that Russell uses repetition extensively, especially repetition of the words like passion/s [in sentences (a), (b), (g)] and sought [in sentences (c) through (g)]. Repetition is also a major device in the global coherence of the passage. Note how Russell repeats the word love in sentence (a) in the first paragraph and sentences (c) and (e) in the second paragraph. Note the repetition of knowledge in sentence (a) of the first paragraph and sentences (g) and (k) in the third and fourth paragraphs. Note the repetition of pity in (a) of the first paragraph and sentence (l) of the fourth paragraph. Russell uses repetition extensively to build coherent text between sentences and paragraphs.

Synonymy. If direct repetition is too obvious, use a synonym of the word you wish to repeat. This strategy is call 'elegant variation.' Russell uses elegant variation in sentence (c) where joy is a synonym for ecstasy and in sentence (h) where the verb to understand echoes knowledge in sentence (a).

Antonymy. Using the 'opposite' word, an antonym, can also create sentence cohesion, since antonyms actually share several elements of meaning. Russell even uses pairs of antonyms (which have strong semantic associations with each other) to draw ideas together coherently. In sentence (b), Russell writes of despair. In (c), he writes of ecstasy. Similarly, in sentence (k), he writes of heaven. But in sentence (l), he is "back" on earth.

Pro-forms. Use a pronoun, pro-verb, or another pro-form to make explicit reference back to a form mentioned earlier. Russell uses the pronoun it extensively in the second paragraph to avoid the inelegant repetition of the word love in sentences (c) through (f).

Collocation. Use a commonly paired or expected or highly probable word to connect one sentence to another. In our culture, the ideas of seeking and finding are often connected. Indeed, as children, most of us have probably played a game called Hide and Seek, where the two ideas are overtly collocated -- paired. Russell too uses the collocation of seeking and finding in the second paragraph, writing in sentences (c) through (f) that he sought [the past tense of seek] love, telling us in (f) that love is what he had eventually found.

Enumeration. Use overt markers of sequence to highlight the connection between ideas. This system has many advantages: (a) it can link ideas that are otherwise completely unconnected, (b) it looks formal and distinctive, and (c) it promotes a second method of sentence cohesion, discussed in 7. Russell uses enumeration in two different ways in the passage. The very first word, three, organizes the whole passage by enumeration. Also, in the second paragraph, Russell uses enumeration to list the reasons for seeking love first: he lists the reasons with the words first, next [elegant variation for second], and finally [which is elegant variation for third].

Parallelism. Repeat a sentence structure. Russell employs parallelism effectively in the second paragraph. Notice that sentences (c), (d), and (e) all have the same structure of subject , perfect auxiliary verb, main verb, direct object, enumerator, and subordinating conjunction: I have sought [love or it] [first, next, or finally] because....

Transitions. Use a conjunction or conjunctive adverb to link sentences with particular logical relationships. Transitions can be subcategorized according to their meaning.

Identity. Indicates sameness. that is, that is to say, in other words.

Opposition. Indicates a contrast. but, yet, however, nevertheless, still, though, although, whereas, in contrast, rather.

Addition. Indicates continuation. and, too, also, furthermore, moreover, in addition, besides, in the same way, again, another, similarly, a similar, the same.

Cause and effect. therefore, so, consequently, as a consequence, thus, as a result, hence, it follows that, because, since, for.

Indefinites. Indicates a logical connection of an unspecified type. in fact, indeed, now.

Concession. Indicates a willingness to consider the other side. admittedly, I admit, true, I grant, of course, naturally, some believe, some people believe, it has been claimed that, once it was believed, there are those who would say.

Exemplification. Indicates a shift from a more general or abstract idea to a more specific or concrete idea. for example, for instance, after all, an illustration of, even, indeed, in fact, it is true, of course, specifically, to be specific, that is, to illustrate, truly.

Russell uses transitions of contrast and addition in sentences (l) and (o).

In sum, if you feel that the passage is well-written, it seems reasonable to argue that part of that feeling stems from passage's coherence. The passage 'flows.' That effect comes however only with carefully planning and application of several of the grammatical devices that promote coherent text.

FINAL MATTERS

In one sense, we have completed our discussion of all the ranks (or levels) of grammar. Initially, we started by discussing some of the grammatical patterns in the smallest constituents of grammar (morphemes) and we have traced the development of grammatical patterns through the word, phrase, clause, and clause complex, finishing with a discussion of grammatical patterns that arise within texts as a whole.

Nonetheless, before we end this discussion, we need to talk about a few more points.

Grammatical Metaphor

Metaphor, as we know, is a figure of speech in which a name or descriptive word or phrase is transferred to an object or action different from, but analogous to, its original referent. Now, some people mistakenly believe that the use of metaphor is limited to special forms of language only, such as literature or biblical exegesis:

But ye loveres, that bathen in gladnesse — Chaucer

The sky rejoices in the morning's birth — Wordsworth

The Lord is my shepherd — Psalm 23

Take this, each of you, and eat; this is my body — Matthew 26:26.

Such metaphors are "traditional" in poetic, highly figurative language. In such a context, it is not unusual to think of the passion of lovers as an all engulfing water, or of the morning sky as a woman giving birth to the sun, or of the Lord as a protective, guiding shepherd caring for the flock, or of the bread at the Last Supper as the body of Christ.

Yet metaphor is really quite common in most "ordinary" varieties of language. Consider the passage from Russell's autobiography again. In sentences (b), for example, Russell employs the metaphor that LIFE IS A VOYAGE, as we can see in the word choices great winds, have blown, hither and thither, wayward course, and deep ocean. Similarly, another metaphor is the controlling idea the helps to unify sentences (c) through (j), the metaphor that THE GOALS AND PURPOSES OF LIFE ARE HIDDEN; WE MUST SEEK THEM OUT.

We see the metaphor at work in

(c) I have sought love, first, ...

(d) I have sought it, next, ...

(e) I have sought it, finally, ...

(f) This is what I sought, and ... what ... I have found.

(g) ... I have sought knowledge.

(j) A little of this ... I have achieved.

(There is a still another metaphor at work in Russell's writing. He uses it primarily in sentences (k) and (l). Those sentences exploit a nexus of up with positive associations while down has negative associations.)

Finally, there is another kind of metaphor that is especially characteristic of written English — grammatical metaphor. Grammatical metaphors are created through the grammatical process of 'derivation' by which a verb or an adjective is converted into a noun, often by adding an ending to the verb or adjective. (Many of the noun suffixes we discussed earlier are used in the process of derivation.)

John acts silly. (verb)

John's actions are silly. (noun created by derivation=grammatical metaphor)

Grammatical metaphors are one hallmark of written English. They occur quite commonly in all varieties of written English, from the informal varieties of take a bath (Halliday 1985) to the formal varieties found in scientific and technical writing (Kies 1985a).

Idioms and Collocation

From our discussion of cohesion above, we know that frequently paired words or a set of words that usually occur together form collocations. Superficially, idioms also appear to be frequently paired words or a phrase with a set pattern in the wording. The difference between a collocation and an idiom, however, is the meaning. The meaning of a collocation can be interpreted by combining the meanings of the separate words in the phrase; the meaning of the idiom is more than (and often quite different from) the meaning of the separate words within the idiom.

Idioms	Collocations
up the creek (in trouble or difficulty)	give and take
to catch one's eye (to attract attention)	bacon and eggs
cornball (superficially sentimental)	through good times and bad

Sometimes the same set of words can function as an "ordinary" phrase, an idiom, or a collocation. Look at sentences (5) through (7) below. Which sentence uses bread and butter as an "ordinary" noun phrase, an idiom, and a collocation?

5. Bread and butter makes a good, quick snack.

6. Bread and butter are becoming increasingly expensive.

7. Engineering was my father's bread and butter.

Sentence (5) uses the collocation, while sentence (6) contains the ordinary phrase, and (7) uses the idiom.

Indeterminacy

One of the most interesting advances in recent work in the study of modern English grammar is an explicit description of the inherent gradience in grammatical categories. Grammatical categories, it seems, are not discrete entities. Rather, they grade off (in a 'fuzzy' way) into related categories, cf. Halliday (1994), Kies (1985b and 1990), Matthews (1981), and Quirk et al. (1985). Halliday (1994:xix-xxxv) discusses the 'ineffability of linguistic categories' and uses the term cline to describe the grammatical property discussed here, while Kies (1985b) and Matthews (1981:17-21) describe the indeterminacy inherent in grammatical categories.

Much of the work on gradience has focused on syntactic gradience in grammatical forms, e.g., forms that exhibit syntactic properties of both nouns and verbs, adverbs and adjectives, or verbs and adjectives. (The gradient nature of grammatical forms was often noted in scholarly grammars of English, cf. Curme (1931) and Jespersen (1933), and one can trace this discussion to Dionysius Thrax, who raised the first questions about gradient forms by positing the participle as one of eight word classes of Greek grammar.) However, equally interesting are the syntactic gradients found in grammatical functions, e.g., the grammatical object that shares some of the syntactic features of the subject or object complement and the subject complement that shares some of the syntactic features of the adverbial (cf., Quirk et al. 1985:90, 147-148, 732-738, and 1216-1220). Gradience in grammatical function has often been dismissed as examples of 'structural ambiguity' or 'multiple analysis,' cf. Quirk et al. (1985:90-91). Yet such an easy label seems to suggest, incorrectly, that gradience in grammatical function is simply (or only) a binary choice: the ambiguous sentence can be analyzed into both structure A and structure B. Those analyses of structural ambiguity miss some important generalizations: cases of structural ambiguity often represent only two of many discrete points on a gradient, and gradience in function is not independent of gradience elsewhere in English grammar. The gradient can be demonstrated through several syntactic tests -- passive, coordination, interrogation, movement, and deletion.

Understanding gradience is central to understanding grammar works in real language. We can illustrate and examine both formal and functional gradience at many levels of grammar. Consider, for example, passive voice verb phrases as in John is tired. The participle in that verb phrases illustrates a gradient between the adjective and the verb word classes. The participle is verb-like in that it has a verb ending (-ed), it has an auxiliary verb preceding it (is), and exhibits the hallmarks of the passive voice verb phrase. Yet the participle is adjective-like too in that it can be modified with adjectives such as very, as in John is very tired. Notice, by contrast, that verbs as a group do not use premodifiers like very. Compare sentences like John is running and *John is very running.

Consider also, for another example, sentences with structures like NP1 V NP2 to-V NP3 (We expected Jim to win the race). Those sentences fall on a gradient between monotransitive constructions and ditransitive constructions, with complex transitive constructions as the intermediate ground, cf.:

(1) We like the parents to visit the school. [monotransitive]

(2) We expected Jim to win the race. [complex transitive]

(3) We asked the students to attend the lecture. [ditransitive]

First, notice that substitution of something for NP2 to-V NP3 structure divides the three sentences into two groups; (1) retains its meaning while (2) and (3) change their meanings, cf.:

(4) We like something. [same meaning as (1)]

(5) We expect something. [different meaning from (2)]

(6) We asked something. [different meaning from (3)]

Likewise, passive demonstrates that the NP2 to -V NP3 constituent is indivisible in (1) while the passive of (2) and (3) are acceptable, cf.:

(7) *Parents are liked to visit the school.

(8) Jim is expected to win the race.

(9) The students were asked to attend the lecture.

So substitution and passive tests demonstrate that NP2 to-V NP is a single constituent in sentence (1) following a monotransitive verb. Furthermore, these tests demonstrate that NP2 is one constituent and to-V NP3 is another constituent in sentences (2) and (3). The passive test allows an object function interpretation of NP , but the functions of to-V NP3 are not yet determined.

Therefore, consider substitution of something for to-V NP3 in sentences (2) and (3), cf.:

(10) *We like the parents something.

(11) *We expected Jim something.

(12) We asked the students something.

Also, consider what questions focusing on to-V NP3 , cf.:

(13) *What did we like the parents?

(14) *What did we expect Jim?

(15) What did we ask the students?

These tests suggest a nominal function for to -V NP3 in sentence (3). Thus the verb in sentence (3) is ditransitive, and the to-V NP3 constituent is another object, a direct object.

Notice that the object function of to-V NP in (3) is supported further by two facts: it can be the focus of a pseudo-cleft sentence and can be the response of a who-question, cf.:

(16) *What we like the parents was to visit the school.

(17) *What we expected Jim was to win the race.

(18) What we asked the students was to attend the lecture.

(19) *What did we like the parents? To visit the school.

(20) *What did we expect Jim? To win the race.

(21) What did we ask the students? To attend the lecture.

Finally, the constituent to-V NP3 in sentence (2) seems to function as an object complement (capable of joining the object Jim in an intensive structure with some form of the verb be), suggesting a complex transitive structure, cf.:

(22) Jim is to win the race.

However, here lies another complication: all of the sentences demonstrate this intensive relationship between NP2 and to-V NP2 , cf.:

(23) Parents are to visit the school.

(24) The students are to attend the lecture.

So what argues for the monotransitive analysis of (1) and the ditransitive analysis of (3)? Primarily, it is the substitution of something, as above, that argues for the nominal character of NP2 to -V NP3 in (1) and the nominal character of both NP2 and to-V NP3 in (3).

Thus it is on the basis of substitution, passive voice corresponding sentences, pseudo-cleft corresponding sentences, and focus in who-questions that the decisions about the exact transitive nature of each sentence is made, although each sentence is an example of multiple analysis on a gradient.

CONCLUSION

Related links: From the English 1101 HyperTextBook Nominalization & Passive Voice Sentence Variety & Modification Coherence From the English 1102 HyperTextBook Suasive Diction Grammatical Manipulation of the Reader

In a real way, our class has been a story, a story exploring a number of structures and systems that contribute to making human language the rich and expressive medium that it is. And in the course of this story, we have used the word pattern forty-three times in the supplemental readings. There is a reason for that. Grammar, like the rest of the language, is a system, and all systems exhibit patterns in their operation and design.

But another part of this story merits repetition here too: words and grammar work together. Those of us who use language everyday, be we bank presidents or toddling babies, know that already. Those of us who study language rigorously are just beginning to understand the significance that idea.

Finally, as the last word on grammar, we would all do well to remember Humpty Dumpty's lesson on words and grammar:

— Lewis Carroll, Alice in Wonderland

---

REFERENCES

Curme, George O.

1931 Syntax, a Grammar of the English Language, 3, Boston: Heath.

Dillon, George.

1981 Constructing Texts, Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.

Eiler, Mary Ann.

1986 "Thematic Distribution as a Heuristic for Written Discourse Function." in Functional Approaches to Writing: Research Perspectives, pp. 49-68, Barbara Couture (ed.), Norwood, N.J.: Ablex.

Fries, Peter H.

1983 "On the Status of Theme in English: Arguments from Discourse." in Micro and Macro Connexity of Texts, pp. 116-52, J. S. Petofi and E. Sozer (eds.), Hamburg: Helmut Buske.

Halliday, Michael A. K.

1967 "Notes on Transitivity and Theme in English, Part 2." Journal of Linguistics 3.199-244.

1985 Spoken and Written Language, Oxford: Oxford University Press.

1994 Introduction to Functional Grammar, 2nd ed. London: Edward Arnold.

Halliday, Michael A. K. and Ruqaiya Hasan.

1976 Cohesion in English, London: Longman.

Jespersen, Otto.

1933 Essentials of English Grammar, London: Allen and Unwin.

Kies, Daniel.

1985a "Some Stylistic Features of Business and Technical Writing: The Functions of Passive Voice, Nominalization, and Agency." Journal of Technical Writing and Communication 15.299-308.

1985b "Gradience in English Grammar." in The Thirteenth LACUS Forum, pp. 199-208. Ilah Fleming (ed.), Lake Bluff, IL: Linguistic Association of Canada and the United States.

1986 "Marked and Unmarked Themes in English: Their Meaning and Distribution in Discourse." in Pragmatics, Discourse, and Text, pp. 47-75, Erich Steiner and Robert Veltman (eds.), London: Pinter.

1990 "Indeterminacy in Sentence Structure." Linguistics and Education 2.321-58.

Matthews. P. H.

1981 Syntax, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Quirk, Randolph; Sidney Greenbaum; Geoffrey Leech; and Jan Svartvik.

1985 A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language, London: Longman.

van Dijk, Teun.

1977 Text and Context, London: Longman.

^Take Note! | Table of Contents | Syllabus | eForum | Search

The HyperTextBooks | The English Main Page | The Composition Links