Daniel Kies Department of English College of DuPage
Modern English Grammar English 2126		Contact Form

Grammar Around and Beyond the Clause

So far, everything we have said about grammar has applied to structures the size of the sentence or smaller. But many grammatical processes extend well beyond the sentence or clause rank. The processes of cohesion and coherence are examples.

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To use the language effectively, we must ensure that our language "holds together" into a coherent, and thereby intelligible, whole. Coherence itself is product of many different factors, which combine to make every paragraph, every sentence, and every phrase contribute to the meaning of the whole piece. Coherence in writing is much more difficult to sustain than coherent speech simply because writers have no nonverbal clues to inform them if their message is clear or not. Therefore, writers must make their patterns of coherence much more explicit and much more carefully planned.

To get a real sense of how cohesion systems contribute to meaning, we need to examine a longer piece of text. The following passage is from The Autobiography of Bertrand Russell: 1872-1914 (pp. 3-4). [I have added letters to the beginning of each sentence to aid our discussion.]

(a) Three passions, simple but overwhelmingly strong, have governed my life: the longing for love, the search for knowledge, and unbearable pity for the suffering of mankind. (b) These passions, like great winds, have blown me hither and thither, in a wayward course over a deep ocean of anguish, reaching to the very verge of despair.

(c) I have sought love, first, because it brings ecstasy — ecstasy so great that I would often have sacrificed all the rest of life for a few hours of this joy. (d) I have sought it, next, because it relieves loneliness — that terrible loneliness in which one shivering consciousness looks over the rim of the world into the cold unfathomable lifeless abyss. (e) I have sought it, finally, because in the union of love I have seen, in a mystic miniature, the prefiguring vision of the heaven that saints and poets have imagined. (f) This is what I sought, and though it might seem too good for human life, this is what — at last — I have found.

(g) With equal passion I have sought knowledge. (h) I have wished to understand the hearts of men. (i) I have wished to know why the stars shine .... (j) A little of this, but not much, I have achieved.

(k) Love and knowledge, so far as they were possible, led upward toward the heavens. (l) But always pity brought me back to earth. (m) Echoes of cries of pain reverberate in my heart. (n) Children in famine, victims tortured by oppressors, helpless old people a hated burden to their sons, and the whole world of loneliness, poverty, and pain make a mockery of what human life should be. (o) I long to alleviate the evil, but I cannot, and I too suffer.

(p) This has been my life. (q) I have found it worth living, and would gladly live it again if the chance were offered me.

Coherence in the text above (or in any text) is the product of several factors:

Repetition. In sentence B (the second of any two sentences), repeat a word from sentence A. Notice that Russell uses repetition extensively, especially repetition of the words like passion/s [in sentences (a), (b), (g)] and sought [in sentences (c) through (g)]. Repetition is also a major device in the global coherence of the passage. Note how Russell repeats the word love in sentence (a) in the first paragraph and sentences (c) and (e) in the second paragraph. Note the repetition of knowledge in sentence (a) of the first paragraph and sentences (g) and (k) in the third and fourth paragraphs. Note the repetition of pity in (a) of the first paragraph and sentence (l) of the fourth paragraph. Russell uses repetition extensively to build coherent text between sentences and paragraphs.

Synonymy. If direct repetition is too obvious, use a synonym of the word you wish to repeat. This strategy is called 'elegant variation.' Russell uses elegant variation in sentence (c) where joy is a synonym for ecstasy and in sentence (h) where the verb to understand echoes knowledge in sentence (a).

Antonymy. Using the 'opposite' word, an antonym, can also create sentence cohesion, since antonyms actually share several elements of meaning. Russell even uses pairs of antonyms (which have strong semantic associations with each other) to draw ideas together coherently. In sentence (b), Russell writes of despair. In (c), he writes of ecstasy. Similarly, in sentence (k), he writes of heaven. But in sentence (l), he is "back" on earth.

Pro-forms. Use a pronoun, pro-verb, or another pro-form to make explicit reference back to a form mentioned earlier. Russell uses the pronoun it extensively in the second paragraph to avoid the inelegant repetition of the word love in sentences (c) through (f).

Collocation. Use a commonly paired or expected or highly probable word to connect one sentence to another. In our culture, the ideas of seeking and finding are often connected. Indeed, as children, most of us have probably played a game called Hide and Seek, where the two ideas are overtly collocated -- paired. Russell too uses the collocation of seeking and finding in the second paragraph, writing in sentences (c) through (f) that he sought [the past tense of seek] love, telling us in (f) that love is what he had eventually found.

Enumeration. Use overt markers of sequence to highlight the connection between ideas. This system has many advantages: (a) it can link ideas that are otherwise completely unconnected, (b) it looks formal and distinctive, and (c) it promotes a second method of sentence cohesion, discussed in 7. Russell uses enumeration in two different ways in the passage. The very first word, three, organizes the whole passage by enumeration. Also, in the second paragraph, Russell uses enumeration to list the reasons for seeking love first: he lists the reasons with the words first, next [elegant variation for second], and finally [which is elegant variation for third].

Parallelism. Repeat a sentence structure. Russell employs parallelism effectively in the second paragraph. Notice that sentences (c), (d), and (e) all have the same structure of subject , perfect auxiliary verb, main verb, direct object, enumerator, and subordinating conjunction: I have sought [love or it] [first, next, or finally] because....

Transitions. Use a conjunction or conjunctive adverb to link sentences with particular logical relationships. Transitions can be subcategorized according to their meaning.

Identity. Indicates sameness. that is, that is to say, in other words.

Opposition. Indicates a contrast. but, yet, however, nevertheless, still, though, although, whereas, in contrast, rather.

Addition. Indicates continuation. and, too, also, furthermore, moreover, in addition, besides, in the same way, again, another, similarly, a similar, the same.

Cause and effect. therefore, so, consequently, as a consequence, thus, as a result, hence, it follows that, because, since, for.

Indefinites. Indicates a logical connection of an unspecified type. in fact, indeed, now.

Concession. Indicates a willingness to consider the other side. admittedly, I admit, true, I grant, of course, naturally, some believe, some people believe, it has been claimed that, once it was believed, there are those who would say.

Exemplification. Indicates a shift from a more general or abstract idea to a more specific or concrete idea. for example, for instance, after all, an illustration of, even, indeed, in fact, it is true, of course, specifically, to be specific, that is, to illustrate, truly.

Russell uses transitions of contrast and addition in sentences (l) and (o).

In sum, if you feel that the passage is well-written, it seems reasonable to argue that part of that feeling stems from passage's coherence. The passage 'flows.' That effect comes however only with carefully planning and application of several of the grammatical devices that promote coherent text.

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